Bio156

Leech Lab

2008-11-09T21:56:00.001-07:00

1. What is the electrode measuring?

The electrodes are recording the electrical activity of the neurons.

2. Why use leeches in neurophysiology experiments?

Leeches have very large, easily accessible neurons in their nerve cord and no one seems to worry about opening them up and feeling sorry for them.

3. What is the difference between a sensory and a motor neuron?

Sensory neurons take nerve impulses from sensor receptors to the CNS and motor neurons take nerve impulses from the CNS to muscle and glands.

4. Do you think a leech experiences pain? What is pain?

Yes, I think leeches feel pain. They have a simple brain, a nerve cord, ganglia, and neurons. The have everything it takes to feel pain. They also have sensory organs on the head and body surface which enable them to detect light, temperature, and vibration.

Pain - For scientific and clinical purposes, pain is defined by the International Association for the Study of Pain (IASP) as "an unpleasant sensory and emotional experience associated with actual or potential tissue damage, or described in terms of such damage".
Compliments of Wikipedia

5. What were the two most interesting things about doing this lab?

I thought learning about the voltage inside of cells was interesting and the lab itself watching the poor little leech get cut up and its guts cut out.

6. Anything you found confusing or didn't like about the lab?

I think for being an online lab, it was very informative, but I would much rather do this stuff in a classroom with other people, on real leeches.

2008-11-09T21:01:00.000-07:00

Self Evaluation

2008-11-09T16:23:00.002-07:00

REGARDING YOUR OWN PERFORMANCE

1. What were the three aspects of the assignments I've submitted that I am most proud of?

I am proud of all my assignments with all I have been through in the last month.

2. What two aspects of my submitted assignments do I believe could have used some improvement? I believe my graphs and tables could have been better, since I really had a hard time uploading them I was just grateful to be done.

3. What do I believe my overall grade should be for this unit?

I would be happy with a B, since I truly understand the work; I just have a hard time with blogger.

4. How could I perform better in the next unit?

I would like to be able to focus a lot more on school rather than cancer or surgeries. That will be my goal for this next unit.

REGARDING THE UNIT (adapted from Stephen Brookfield, University of St. Thomas "Critical Incident Questionnaire")

At what moment during this unit did you feel most engaged with the course?
I really enjoyed this unit right from the beginning and felt very engaged right from the beginning.
At what moment unit did you feel most distanced from the course?
I had quite a few struggles during this unit due to an unforeseen illness followed by a surgery. Which would be why I am turning in my work so late?
What action that anyone (teacher or student) took during this unit that find most affirming and helpful?
I am much appreciative to Mr. Frolich for his words of encouragement and allowing me to turn in my work late without a lot of pressure. He allowed me to focus on my health and didn't make it so terribly hard to get my assignments in on time. Thank You!!!
What action that anyone (teacher or student) took during this unit did you find most puzzling or confusing?
I don't think I found anything to be puzzling or confusing.
What about this unit surprised you the most? (This could be something about your own reactions to the course, something that someone did, or anything else that occurs to you.)
I was surprised by how much fun I had doing the metabolic lab.

2008-11-08T18:35:00.003-07:00

A Healthier Diet, A Healthier Mind, A Happier World?

A healthier diet is a reward to our body and our minds, which in the long run rewards our communities and the entire world. Imagine a world of healthy living people. We would see much less sickness and much more happiness. Eating a diet rich in fresh fruits and vegetables gives our bodies the energy that these plants have sacrificed. The energy and life that resides in each living organism whether it be plant or animal is destroyed when we process it and put it in a box or a can to store on a shelf for years. All of the beautiful enzymes and nutrients that our bodies require for proper nutrition, digestion, mind function, and muscle coordination are lost when they are denatured by being over cooked and saturated with preservatives. Without venturing too far into the fact that the same thing is taking place with irradiating our meats, fruits and vegetables now, this is a topic of a different discussion. We will mainly just discuss the importance of fresh vegetables, fruits, and organic meats and dairy.

View Point 1: "A Life of not Knowing Any Better"

Growing up in a single parent home proper nutrition was a difficult task for my mother to achieve. I believe that money was not the true barrier in my mother's poor food choices; (although we were quite poor) I believe the main dilemma was a lack of knowledge in the importance of proper nutrition. Culturally, we came from a family of fast food eating, deep frying, mayonnaise loving people, so these habits were socially acceptable and no other thought was ever put into an alternative way of eating or cooking. Sure every now and again someone would hear on the news how bad a diet high in fat is, then the Atkins Diet would at the same time promote a diet high in fat and tell you not to eat the most essential carbs from fruits and vegetables. To this day most of my family including distant relatives still eats the same way because it's the only way they know. In the small town I come from there is not a nutrition class in the high school, nor would that even help if they are not taught the proper way of planning a nutritious meal. Needless to say along with the obesity I see a lot of unhappiness and depression in my relatives. Its seems no matter how hard I try to explain the importance of eating a diet rich in fresh fruits and vegetable and minimal meats and dairy it does no good. I had my mother stay with me for a month last year. While she was here, her diet was filled with good nutritious foods and I added some supplements which I thought might be helpful. She lost close to twenty pounds and her face beamed life once again. I thought wow; she will really enjoy feeling good and looking good and continue this life when she leaves….Nope, not at all. She has since regained the weight and the life in her face has subsided. Without looking for proof of how important the link is between my mouth and my spirit was shown to me through my mother's visit.

View Point 2 "Learning a New Way"

Although being raised on macaroni and cheese was the way I was raised, it is the opposite of the way I live today. I feel I have firsthand experience when it comes to the topic of nutrition. I used to eat whatever, when ever, and how ever much I could. I rarely added fresh fruit of vegetable to my diet. I had a diet of mainly processed foods high in fat and sugars. It never occurred to me that the hormones in my milk and meat may affect me in some way. I ate just like everyone else that I worked with, and I worked in a doctor's office where you think that nutrition would be first on our minds. Not by far! In fact it's been my experience that our healthcare workers are just as sick and unhealthy as the patients they are treating. That is, until I went to work in natural medicine. I became aware of the dangers that I was putting in my body day in and day out. I discovered a world of people that glowed in physical appearance and spiritual energy. The patients that came to this doctor didn't look ill, even if they were. The focus of the doctors concerns were always on the patient's diet and how much water they drank. I started paying attention. I first started by just cutting out most dairy products…I lost around 10 pounds in the first few weeks by just doing that. Then I began to eat more raw fruits and vegetables and cut out processed (poisoned) foods. That made a big difference in the energy I began to have and the way I felt in general. I choose to stick to more of a macrobiotic diet now. I can eat sushi every day and I come close to doing that. I eat only whole grains and rarely do I open a can or a box filled with processed foods in my house. One other thing I try to do is by only organic, sometimes it's just too expensive so I buy regular. I am hoping to grow my own garden this year…we will see how that goes. I no longer even think of eating fast food ( as a matter of fact it makes me ill), I never need a nap any more, I don't get frustrated as easily, I enjoy my life, and I rarely get sick. I choose to take supplements along with a healthy diet only because I feel that our food looses a lot of its nutrition if its radiated. The funny thing, if we listen to our bodies they tell exactly what they need and what is wrong if they are not filled with junk every day.

As I mentioned with my mom she was raised not knowing about the importance of nutrition. I wasn't raised with that either, but I was fortunate enough to become educated on its importance and believe in it, she didn't believe in it. As they say, "you can lead a horse to water, but you can't make him drink." I feel that most of the population doesn't even know there's a water trough. I feel we should make more of an attempt in educating our society about processed foods, refined sugars and flours and how dangerous these things can be to our body. Proper nutrition is crucial in how we feel emotionally and spiritually. This is why in some areas they treat depression or the so called ADHD with amino acid therapy and diet changes first and they have very good outcomes with just changing that. Our bodies are so important that we spend inconsiderable amounts to cover them in name brand clothes, pay excruciating amounts to haul them around in cars, but to think of spending a little bit more for fresh organic or local foods in unfathomable. With industrialization we have eliminated the appreciation and the importance of the food we put in our bodies. Starting at the elementary age we should incorporate programs such as the farm to school programs, give incentives for families to grow gardens once again, bring back the local farmers. Nutrition classes and disease awareness classes could be considered in our high school right alongside of sex ed. If we can teach our children about homosexual behaviors in school, then I see no problem teaching them about taking care of their body with the right foods. Whatever it takes to teach this new generation that the way things are being done right now are WRONG. Things must be changed or we will have an ugly, sick, and unhappy world of people.

2008-11-08T10:30:00.002-07:00

METABOLIC RATE DATA TABLE

	Repetition 1	Repetition 2	Repetition 3	Repetition 4	Repetition 5	Mean
Baseline
Pulse	66	62	60	62	70	64
Resp	12	14	12	12	14	12.8
Systolic	108	112	110	110	114	110.8
Diastolic	68	74	70	74	70	71.2
Activity 1
Pulse	68	72	66	68	68	68.4
Resp	12	12	12	12	12	12
Systolic	110	108	112	116	108	110.8
Diastolic	70	70	68	72	68	69.9
Activity 2
Pulse	133	140	128	132	134	133.4
Resp	22	24	20	22	24	22.4
Systolic	120	116	122	120	126	120.8
Diastolic	70	68	72	70	68	69.6
Activity 3
Pulse	88	100	96	90	98	94.4
Resp	16	18	16	16	16	16.4
Systolic	110	112	110	108	108	109.6
Diastolic	68	70	70	78	76	72.4

Lab Write Up

2008-11-04T15:59:00.006-07:00

Activity 1

Pre Hyperbaric Treatment and the Hyperbaric Treatment

Activity 2- Hiking
Hiking Thunder Mountain and Hiking Chimney Rock Trail

Activity 3 Walking
Walking Flagstaff With Nicholas and a Great Sunset during one walk

Introduction: In this lab I will show the results of various activities and the impact they have on the body's metabolic system. I will compare my baseline vitals at rest to my vitals concluding 3 different activities.

Hypothesis: I hypothesize that I will have no change in vitals, although I will be fully saturated with oxygen in my first activity. In my second activity I believe that my pulse rate will increase to at least 2 times, maybe 2.5 the normal rate. My respirations will also increase quite a bit and my systolic blood pressure will probably rise a bit, but not much. The third activity, I think my respirations will rise slightly and my heart rate will increase some.

Materials:

Stethoscope

Blood Pressure cuff

Co-worker

Husband

Mother Earth

Methods: My first activity was done each day for a week at work. My coworker took my vitals after each hyperbaric oxygen treatment. I was taken to 2.4 ATA (which is 45 feet under seawater) for 130 minutes. In my second activity I was doing my usual hiking trails at various elevations and speeds. The third activity I used my nightly walk. My vitals were taken by my husband for the second and third activities.

Data: Table available on next post/graph unable to load

METABOLIC RATE DATA TABLE

Analysis of Data: My hypothesis was correct in all three activities. I saw my vitals remain the same in activity 1, rise quite a bit in activity 2, and slightly with the activity 3.

Problems with Data: I believe that the data was a rough sketch as to the true metabolic changes that take place during various activities. If I were to do this again I think it would be fun to include body temp, blood sugar, O2 level, and hydration levels through specific gravity levels.

Conclusion: In this lab I really began to think of the metabolism that takes place through proper nutrition, exercise, and rest. When I was doing all of these activities (especially #2 when I was on the top of thunder mountain) I could imagine the internal respiration taking place in my body with my red blood cells carrying the oxygen to my capillaries and tissue and the each red blood cell taking back the carbon dioxide and waste to my lungs for external respiration to occur. My respiratory rate was increased so I could keep up with the increased cardiovascular system. With my blood circulating faster my temperature went up increasing the size of my blood vessels. All of these things working together maintaining homeostasis…what a beautiful thing. I had a great time doing this lab and look forward to doing the next one.

2008-10-13T21:46:00.000-07:00

FOOD NUTRITION LAB WRITE-UP

Sunday October 5, 2008 Nutrition Summary

Breakfast
1. Fried Egg
2. Yogurt with bananas and bluberrys
3. Coffee
4. 1 tsp sugar
5. Coffee
6. 1 tsp sugar

Lunch
1. Tuna Salad on wheat
2. Green Leaf Salad w/ Tomatoes, Avocado, and feta
3. 2 Gingersnap Cookies
4. 1 liter water

Sometime Between lunch and Dinner
1. 2 Cups Popcorn w/ Nutritional Yeast (no butter…some salt)
2. Handful or so mixed nuts
3. 1 liter water

Dinner
1. Very tasty Beef Stew around 1.5 cups
2. Bread Stick
3. Green leaf salad with tomatoes and avocados
4. 1 litter water

Dessert
1. Fruit Tart
2. Coffee
3. 1tsp sugar
4. Coffee
5. 1 tsp sugar

Supplements – Folic Acid, Calcium, Vitamin E, Cardiac Support herbs, Adrenal Complex, ½ multi vitamin, and omega 3 fish oils

-How healthy a daily diet do you think this is? Why?
On a daily basis I would say I have a fairly clean and healthy diet. I try to eat plenty of organic fruits and vegetable (the entire rainbow of colors) along with lean meat and whole wheat grains and olive oil. I don’t eat a lot of dairy. I still eat yogurt and cheese but not a lot. I try every day to drink 4 liters of water because I think water is so important for my overall health and endurance. I used to eat fast foods and refined products until around 2 years ago when I learned how important nutrition is. I can’t imagine ordering from a drive thru now.

-What would you change about this day's eating, if anything?
If I were to change one thing in this days eating it would be the coffee. Coffee is my one vice that I still love doing, but I am not ready to give that up yet.

-Do you find this kind of nutritional tracking helpful? Why or why not
I think seeing anything in black and white puts a new twist of reality to it. So, yes I think tracking your eating habits is a very useful tool.

Blood Pressure Online Lab

2008-10-05T14:40:00.000-07:00

1.State a problem about the relationship of age and gender to blood pressure.
Some individuals have predisposing risk factors that contribute to hypertension. Age and gender are two risk factors that cannot be changed. Men over 50 have a greater possibility of blood pressure issues than women in her fifties. Diet, excursive, and life style choices can cut the risk factors for individuals drastically
2.Use your knowledge about the heart and the circulatory system to make a hypothesis about how the average blood pressure for a group of people would be affected by manipulating the age and gender of the group members.
I believe that if I take a Group of 10 men and 10 women between the ages of 25 -34, 35 - 44, and 45-54 I will see normal range blood pressures in both in the first group. In the second group I will start to see more men exgibiting hypertension than women, and in the third group the men will far outrank the women. I think this will be mainly to lifestyle habits, rather than hereditary issues.
3.How will you use the investigation screen to test your hypothesis? What steps will you follow? What data will you record?
I will take the given group of ten men, ten women in their mid twenties and record each of their blood pressures. (Males are group M-A, Female F-A) I will then average the mean systolic and diastolic pressures of the group. I will then take a look at each individual’s medical chart to discover the risk factors associated with the hypertension they are experiencing. I will record all of the risk factors to determine if nature supersedes nurture when it comes to hypertension. I will then take the same number of both men and women, from their mid thirties early forties and record all of the factors related to each of their blood pressures (Males are Group M-B, Females F-A), repeating then the same steps again, but the group will be in their mid fifties (Male Group M-C, Females F-C).
4.Analyze the result of your experiment. Explain any patterns you observed.
In my findings with my different groups I found that family history does play a big role in the case of hypertension, but my discoveries also proved my theory regarding lifestyle choices and diet and exercise are also true. I found that in Males ages 25 - 34, the main risk factor what alcohol and diet. In males ages 35-44 all risk factors were equal in playing a part in hypertension again the same seemed to be true for males between 45-54 years of age. The groups I analyzed surprised me with how different the blood pressures ranges were from that of my male groups. Women between the ages of 25-34 I found no hypertension in any of the individuals analyzed. In the next group of women I35- 44 years of age I had two cases of hypertension both were related to alcohol or diet. I was truly amazed with my next discovery of women ages 45-54; I did not have any hypertension cases in that age range.
5.Did the result of your experiment support your hypothesis? Why or why not? Based on your experiment what conclusion can you draw about the relationship of age and gender to group blood pressure averages?
My hypothesis was not supported by my experiment. I have discovered that gender, age, and family history do play a strong role in the cases of hypertension I observed. It seems that men over the age of fifty with a family history must be aware of the predisposed risk factors they have contributing to their health. There are still preventions that should be taken such as not drinking, smoking, living a healthy life with plenty of exercise, a good diet and plenty of laughs go along way.
6.During the course of your experiment, did you obtain any blood pressure reading that were outside of the normal range for the group being tested? What did you notice on the medical charts for these individuals that might explain their high reading?
Depending on the ages, younger males (25-34) seemed to have hypertension due to lifestyle choices, such as diet and alcohol consumption. Group M-B and M-C had an even amount of risk factors in their charts such as Family History (4:20), Alcohol (4:20), Diet (4:20), and Exercise (3:20). This does show that lifestyle factors outnumber heredity factors and should be looked at very carefully.
7.List risk factors associated with the hypertension. Based on your observation, which risk factor do you think is most closely associated with hypertension?
A brief look at some of the risk factors that contribute to hypertension are Family History, Age, Gender, Diet, Exercise, Alcohol, Smoking, Drugs, and Obesity. As I listed before Family History, Age, and Gender seem to out rank the other risk factors in my opinion because they can’t be changed.
8.What effect might obesity have on blood pressure? Does obesity alone cause a person to be at risk for high blood pressure? What other factors, in combination with obesity, might increase a person's risk for high blood pressure?
Obesity is caused by living an unhealthy lifestyle which I believe is not the cause of hypertension but the effect of the choices made by the individual. This lifestyle is full of the risk factors that contribute to hypertension, such as lack of exercise, high fat diets, not to mention any family history, gender and age.

Blood Pressure Table

Age of Individuals in Study
25-34yrs 35-44 45-54

131/81 118/78 132/83 Mens Blood Pressure

124/80 136/80 128/76 Womens Blood Pressure

Compenium Review 2

2008-09-28T21:25:00.000-07:00

Chapter 18 - Patterns of Chromosome Inheritance
Sub-Topics:
Chromosomes and the Cell Cycle
Mitosis
Meiosis
Comparison of Meiosis and Mitosis
Chromosome Inheritance

Chromosomes and the Cell Cycle -There are 46 chromosomes that occur in pairs of 23. These chromosomes make up the human DNA. Only one pair of chromosomes decides the gender of the person while the other twenty-two pairs are autosomes, or non-sex chromosomes. For the sex of the individual they must have two X chromosomes and for the sex to be male the individual must both an X and a Y chromosome, for the Y chromosome develops testes.
Karyotype- Mitosis, the duplication and division of cells, maintains that every cell has 46 chromosomes. Each chromosomes sister chromatids are duplicated chromosomes because they contain the same genes. Each chromatid contains a DNA double helix which controls the heredity of the individual. A centromere, containing the chromatids, holds the chromatids together until a particular phase of mitosis when it breaks. After which the two sister chromatids become separate chromosomes.
The Cell Cycle- The cell cycle is the process in which the cell grows, replicates DNA, mitosis, and Cytokinesis occur to prepare for the division of the cell. Interphase is the state in which most of the time is spent in the cell cycle; it makes up 90% of the cell cycle. During Interphase the cell grows, reproduces DNA, and the final preparation for division are made. Different types of cells take different amounts of time in Interphase. After Interphase the cell goes into mitosis, or nuclear division. Mitosis is made up of four stages; Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase, and Telophase. After mitosis the cell begins Cytokinesis, in which the cytoplasm is divided and the cell cycle is completed. A process called apoptosis occurs when cells are dividing when they shouldn’t.
Mitosis - Mitosis is the duplication and division of cells. The dividing cell, the parent cell, becomes two other cells, the daughter cells. During mitosis the sister chromatids split at the centromere and each daughter cell receives the same number of chromosomes as the parent cell making them identical to the parent. During mitosis is the important duplication of the centrosome. The centrosome is a microtubule center of the cell. The four phases of mitosis are; Prophase, centrosomes duplicate and chromatin is condensing, Metaphase, duplicated centromeres align and spindle fibers attach to sister chromatids, Anaphase, sister chromatids part becoming daughter chromosomes and move toward spindle poles, and Telophase, daughter cells become nuclear envelops, nucleoli reappear, and chromosomes become chromatin. During Cytokinesis, the last step of the cell cycle, the cell divides completely and forms two cells.
The Importance of the Cell Cycle and Mitosis - Without the cell cycle, including mitosis, people would be without certain normality’s. Normality’s such as proper growth, reparation of an injury, and proper healing.
Meiosis – is the reduction division. DNA replication is followed by meiosis I when homologous chromosomes pair and the separate. During Meiosis II the sister chromatids become chromosomes that move into daughter nuclei. In humans the daughter cells mature into gametes that fuse during fertilization which restores the diploid number of chromosomes in the zygote.
Stages of Meiosis -Meiosis is a part of sexual production. Both meiosis I and meiosis II have the same four stages of nuclear division as did mitosis.
· Prophase I synapses occurs the spindle appears while the nuclear envelop fragments and the nucleolus disappears. During this phase crossing over occurs in which the exchange of genetic material happens.
· Metaphase I – the homologous pairs align independently at the equator to combine into a possible 8,388,608 different combinations of maternal or paternal patterns.
· The significance of Meiosis is for one to keep the chromosome number consistent from generation to generation. An easier way to keep the chromosomes consistent is to reproduce asexually.
Chromosome Inheritance – an individual receives 22 pair of autosomes and two sex chromosomes. Individuals that are born with either to many or too few autosomes or sex chromosomes, most likely due to nondisjunction during meiosis. Normal development depends on the presence of exactly two of each kind of chromosome. Too many chromosomes are tolerated better than a deficiency of chromosomes, and several trisomies are known to occur in humans. Only trisomy 21 has a reasonable chance of survival after birth. The chances of survival are greater when trisomy or monosomy involves the sex chromosomes. Down syndrome also known as trisomy 21 is most common autosomal trisomy. Persons with trisomy 21 or Down syndrome have three copies of chromosome 21 because the egg had two copies instead of one. Down syndrome is characterized by the short stature, and eyelid fold, a flat face, stubby fingers, a side gap between the first and second toes, a large fissure tongue, a round head, a palm crease, and mental retardation. The genes that cause Down syndrome are located on the bottom third of chromosome 21.
Changes in Sex Chromosome Number – is a result of inheriting too many or too few x or y chromosomes. The following are some of these disorders.
· Turners Syndrome – an individual will only have one sex chromosome which is an x. As adult women they are short, with broad chest and folds of skin on the back of the neck. The ovaries, oviducts, and uterus are very small and unmenstrated and their breast do not develop.
· Klinefelter Syndrome – males are born with two x chromosomes and on y chromosome.
· Polies –X females – have more than two X chromosomes and extra Barr bodies in the nucleus. They have no real distinctive characteristics, but they do seem to be tall and thin with some delayed motor and speech skills.
· Jacobs Syndrome- is XYY males and only result from nondisjunction during spermatogenesis. They are taller than average, acne problems, and speech and reading problems.
Changes in Chromosome Structure – are another type of chromosomal mutation. Agents in the environment such as radiation and chemicals can cause chromosome break down, Changes in chromosome structure include deletions, translocations, duplications, and inversions of chromosome segments.

Chapter 19 Cancer
Topics:
Cancer Cells
Causes and Prevention
Diagnosis of Cancer
Treatment of Cancer

Cancer Cells - – Cancer cells have a number of abnormal characteristics that prevent them from functioning it same manner as normal cells. They divide repeatedly and from tumors in the place of origin and in other parts of the body. Cancer is a cellular disease and these cells have and enlarged nuclei and may contain and abnormal number of chromosomes. The chromosomes are abnormal also. Cancer cells fail to undergo apoptosis as other abnormal cells. The tissues that divide more rapidly are more likely to become cancerous. Cancer cells can also divide an unlimited amount of times unlike a normal cell which will divide up to 60 or 70 times. Cancers cells have lost all restraint and they pile up on one another and form tumors. Cancer cells gradually become abnormal through a multistage process.
Initiation: a single cell undergoes a mutation that caused it to begin to divide repeatedly. Promotion: A tumor develops and the tumor cells continue to divide and mutate. Progression: one cell undergoes a mutation that gives it a selective advantage over the other cells. This process is repeated several times and eventually there is a cell that has the ability to invade surrounding tissues. Cancers are classified according t their place of origin. Cancers occur in all parts of the body, but some organs are more susceptible than others. Lung cancer is most common type of cancer. Breast cancer is another very common cancer mostly found in women, but also found in men.
Cause and Prevention of Cancer- There is still a void in the understanding of cancer and how it happens, but much research has shown some success in finding preventative measures that can be taking to lessen the chances of cancer forming.
Heredity- since we inherit two copies of every gene one from each parent then the mutated copy of the cancer gene is passed on.
Environmental Carcinogens- Radiation with it is natural or artificial has an impact on cells as a mutagen.
Organic Chemicals- Tobacco smoke is a know mutagen along with pollutants such as pesticides, metals, dust, or other chemicals.
Viruses- hepatitis c and b, Epstein Barr, and HPV are all linked to cancer
Dietary choices- A diet high in fat and processed foods show a link to cancer. Eating a well balance diet rich in colorful fruits and vegetables helps keep anti cancer fighters on board.

Diagnosing Cancer – The earlier the detection the better. Testing for the molecular fingerprints of a cancer may be in the future. Routine screening and self examination should be done on a regular basis, monthly for breast and testicles. Tumor marker tests are blood test that can be done to check for tumor antigens and antibodies. Genetic testing is possible to detect the likelihood of cancer before it ever becomes a tumor.

Treatments of Cancer-Standard therapies have been around for a long time and new procedures are always being tested.
Surgery can be done alone or in conjunction with other therapies
Radiation Therapy cases chromosomal breakage and cell cycle duration dividing cells such as cancer and are more susceptible to its effects than other cells. Side effects vary greatly depending on which part of the body is targeted.
Chemotherapy treats the entire body unlike radiation that is focused on just the targeted area. Chemotherapy usually mixes medication to prevent the cancer from becoming resistant to the drugs. What chemicals that are used are based on the patient’s type of cancer, age, health, and the ability to handle the drug. Certain cancers respond successfully when treated with chemotherapy. Chemotherapy fails at times because cancer cells become resistant to one or several chemo drugs.
Bone marrow transplants are sometimes done in conjunction with chemotherapy, due to the large populations of dividing cells. The patient’s stem cells are harvested and stored before chemotherapy begins. They are then returned to the patient by injection as needed.
Newer therapies are in clinical trials. One is immunotherapy which is a vaccine called Melacine which contains broken melanoma cells from two different sources. A gene therapy is also being looked at which respect to the p53 expression to trigger apoptosis. When the adenoviruses infect a cell they first produce a protein that inactivates p53. Now the adenovirus can infect and kill only cells that lace a p53 gene which would be the cancer genes. This genetically engineered virus is now in clinical trials.

Chapter 20 Patterns of Genetic Inheritance

Genotype and phenotype refer to the genes for a particular trait, and the phenotype refers to physical characteristics, such as hairline, blood type, color blindness, and even any cellular disorder. During gametognesis the chromosome number is only half, the gamete has 23 chromosomes. Reduction of the chromosomes number occurs when the homologous chromosomes separate as meiosis occurs. The alleles also separate because they are on the chromosome. Therefore the gamete only carries one allele.

Family pedigrees for Genetic Disorders –are when a genetic disorder is Autosomal dominant and individual with the alleles AA of Aa will have the disorder. If the genetic disorder is Autosomal recessive only individuals with the alleles aa will have the disorder.
Autosomal recessive Disorder-
· affected children can have unaffected parents
· Heterozygote’s Aa has an unaffected phenotype.
· Two affected parents will always have affected parents.
· Affected individuals with homozygous unaffected mates will have unaffected children.
· Close relatives who reproduce are more likely to have affected children.
· Both males and females are affected with equal frequency
o Tay-Sachs disease results from a lack of the enzyme hexosaminidase A and the subsequent store of its substrate a glycosphingolipid in lysosomes. Lysosomes build up primarily in the brain and by 4 – 8 months of life symptoms begin ending in paralysis.
o Cystic Fibrosis occurs when chloride ions fail t pass through a plasma membrane channel protein in the cells. This causes a lack of water resulting in very thick mucus in the lungs and pancreatic ducts. Clogged pancreatic ducts prevent digestive enzymes form reaching the small intestine and in the lungs the thick mucus interferes with breathing.
o Phenylketonuria is a metabolic disorder that affects the nervous system development. Individuals lack an enzyme that is needed of the normal metabolism of the amino acid phenylalanine. Patients must be put on a diet low in phenylalanine until full brain development in reached and even then some doctors believe patients should stay on this diet for life.
o Sickle Cell disease is a disorder in which the red blood cells are not biconcave and result in the cell not being passed along eh narrow capillary and they clog the vessels and break down. These patients suffer from poor circulation, anemia, and low resistance to infection.
Autosomal Dominant Disorders
· Affected children will usually have an affected parent
· Heterozygote’s Aa are affected
· Two affected parents can produce an unaffected child.
· Two unaffected parents will not have affected children
· Both males and females are affected with equal frequency.
o Marfan syndrome is caused by a defect in an elastic connective tissue protein called fibrillin. The person often has a dislocated lens, long limbs and fingers, and a caved in chest. The aorta wall is weak and could possibly burst without warning.
o Huntington Disease is a neurological disorder that leads to progressive degeneration of brain cells. The disease is caused by a mutated copy of the gene for a protein call Huntington. Most patients appear normal until middle age then symptoms appear and death will occur in 10 to 15 years. There is no cure for this disease.

Polygenic Inheritance- is traits such as skin color and height that are governed by several sets of alleles. The dominant alleles have a quantitative effect on the phenotype, and these effects are additive. The result is a continuous variation of phenotypes.

Incomplete dominance – occurs when the heterozygote is intermediate between the two homozygote’s. Only one allele codes for a product and the single dose of the product gives the intermediate result.

Codominance occurs when alleles are equally expressed in a heterozygote. Such as when a person inherited both parents blood types.

Multiple Allele Inheritance is a trait that is controlled by multiple alleles; the gene exists in several allelic forms. Each person has only two of the tree possible alleles and both 1A and 1B are dominant over i.

Sex Linked inheritance
Normally both males and females have 23 pairs of chromosomes, 22 are called autosomes, and one pair is the sex chromosomes. The sex chromosomes differ between the sexes. Traits controlled by genes on the sex chromosomes are said to be sex-linked, an allele on an X chromosome is X-linked, and an allele on the Y chromosome is Y-linked. A male always receives an X—linked allele from his mother, from whom he inherited an X chromosome. The Y chromosome form the father does not carry an allele for the trait. Usually a sex linked genetic
Disorder is recessive there for a female must receive two alleles, one from each parent.

Chapter 21: DNA Biology and Technology

DNA and RNA structure and function
DNA is a double helix composed of polynucleotide strands. When DNA replicates, each strand serves as a template for a new strand. RNA is also made off a DNA template. DNA is the genetic material found in a chromosome located in the nucleus of a cell. This genetic material has to be able to do three things, replicate so it can be pasted on to the next generation, store information, and undergo mutations that provide genetic variability. When cells divide each new cell gets and exact copy of DAN During replication the double stranded structure of DNA allows each original strand to serve as a template for the formation of a complementary new strand.
RNA is made up of nucleotides containing the sugar ribose. This sugar accounts for the scientific name of this polynucleotide. The four nucleotides that make up the RNA molecule have the following base: adenine, Uralic, cytosine, and guanine. RNA is single stranded, but the single RNA strand sometimes double backs upon itself. Ribosomal RNA is produced in the nucleolus of a nucleus where a portion of DMA serves as a template for its formation. Messenger RNA is produced into the nucleus where DNA serves as a template for its formation. This type of RNA carries genetic information from DNA to the Ribosome’s in the cytoplasm where protein synthesis occurs. Transfer RNA is produced in the nucleus and a protein DNA also serves as a template for it production. This RNA transfers amino acids to the ribosomes. Each type of tRNA carries only one type of amino acid.

Gene expression – Gene expression results in a protein product. Each protein has sequence of amino acids according to the blueprint provided by the sequence of nucleotides in DNA. First, gene expression is called translation. During transcription a strand of mRNA forms, then it forms a transcript of a gene, so then a sequence of nucleotides in DNA is copied to a sequence of nucleotides in mRNA. Protein synthesis requires the process of translation, which means in this cans a sequence of nucleotides is translated into the sequence of amino acids. This is possible only if the bases in DNA and mRNA code for amino acids. This code is called the genetic code.

Genomics – is the study of genetic information in a particular cell or organism. The twenty first century has made plenty of strides in this field. Things that were never thought to be possible are now possible. Though studies conduct by Universities and private labs both were able to know the order of the 3 billion bases A, T, C, and G in our genome. The genome size is not proportionate to the number of genes and does not correlate to complexity of the organism. Comparing genomes is one way to determine how species have evolved and how genes and noncoding regions of the genome function. Another discovery has been how similar the genomes of all vertebrates are.
Proteomics is the study of the structure, function, and interaction of cellular proteins. Many of our genes are translated into proteins in our cells. The analysis or proteomes is more challenging that the analysis of genomes. Computer modeling of the tree dimensional shape of cellular proteins is an important part of proteomics.
Bioformatics is the application of computer technology to the study of the genome. As a result of bioinformatics, scientists are hopeful of finding cause and effect relationships between various genetic profiles and genetic disorders caused by mutifactorial genes.

Gene Therapy is the insertion of genetic material into human cells for the treatment of a disorder. Both Ex Vivo Gene Therapy and In Vivo Therapy are used. Gene cloning can be done to produce many identical copies of the same gene. Recombinant DNA which contains DNA from two or more different sources allows genes to be cloned. To create recombinant DNA a technician needs a vector by which the gene of interest will be introduced into a host cell, such an s a bacterium. One common vector is plasmid.
Bacteria, plants, and animals are genetically engineered to produce biotechnology products. Organisms that have had a foreign gene inserted into them are called transgenic organisms. Transgenic organisms can produce biotechnology products such as hormones and vaccines. Transgenic bacteria can promote plant health. Transgenic crops can resist pests. Transgenic animal can be given growth hormone to produce larger animals, transplant organs, and pharmaceuticals. All of things can have a positive effect on life, but some scientists are skeptical on the safety of genetically engineering our plants and animals.

Compendium Review 1

2008-09-25T11:23:00.000-07:00

Compendium Review
Chapter 1 – Exploring Life and Science
Sub-Topics:
The 7 Characteristics of Life
Humans are Related to other animals
Science is a process
Making sense of a scientific study
Science and Social Responsibility

Living organisms all share 7 common characteristics.
1. They all have levels of organization- atoms join to from molecules that make up a cell. A cell is the smallest structural and functional unit of an organism. A tissue is a group of similar cells that perform the same function. Tissues make up organs and each organ belongs to an organ system. An organ system works together to accomplish a common purpose for a living organism. Organisms such as plants or humans are a collection of organ systems. All the levels of biological organization extend beyond the individual into groups of species. (Breeding organisms), which makes up that particular species. The population of various organisms makes a community. The environment around the community makes the ecosystem and finally the earth’s ecosystem makes the biosphere.
2. All things take material and energy from the environment. Humans and other animals acquire materials and energy when they eat food. Food provides nutrients to provide energy to maintain the organization of the cell and of the organism. Some nutrient molecules are broken down completely to provide the necessary energy to convert other nutrient molecules into the parts and products of the cell.
3. Organisms reproduce offspring that resemble themselves to ensure continuance of their own kind. The presence of genes or DNA molecules allows cells and organisms to make more of them. DNA contains the blue prints of the organism as to duplicate themselves.
4. Growth and development is recognized by and increase in size and often the number of cells. In humans development includes all the changes that occur from the time the egg is fertilized until death. All organisms undergo development.
5. This will be discussed in depth later.
6. Organisms respond to external stimuli, often moving away from, or toward. Movement in humans and other animals is dependent upon their nervous and musculoskeletal systems. The leaves of plants track the passage of the sun during the day and when a house plant is placed near a window; its stems bend to face the sun. Homeostasis would be impossible without the ability of the body to respond to stimuli.
7. Organisms have an evolutionary history and adapt to their environment and changes. When a new variation arises that allows certain members of the species to capture more resources, these members tend to survive and to have more offspring that the other, unchanged members. Therefore, each successive generation will include more members with the new variation that represents and adaption to the environment.
Humans Are Related to Other Animals
The Classification of living things mirrors their evolutionary relationships. Humans are mammals, a type of vertebrate in domain Eurkarya. Humans differ from other mammals, including apes, by their highly developed brains, completely upright stance, creative language and ability to use a wide variety of tools.
Humans Have a Culture Heritage – Human beings encompass certain activities and products that are passed on from one generation to the next outside of direct biological inheritance. The previous generation passes on their beliefs, values, and skills to the next generation. Human skills have also produced a rich heritage in the arts and sciences. This culture of highly civilized people gives us the impression we are separate from other animals and makes us think we are not a part of nature.
Humans are part of the biosphere – Humans depend on the biosphere for its man services, such as absorption of pollutants, sources of water and food, prevention of soil erosion, and natural beauty. Unfortunately humans also threaten the biosphere with the many products and activities they use in there lives. Many biologists are alarmed about the present rate of extinction and believe it may eventually rival the rates of the five ass extions that have occurred during our plants history. The dinosaurs became extinct during the last mass extinction 65 million years ago. One of the major bioethical issues of our time is preservation or the biosphere. Conservation, recycling, a preservation is the way we can help ensure the continued existence of our species.

Science as a process
Science is a way of knowing about the natural world. Biologists use the scientific process when they study the natural world. A hypothesis is formulated and tested to arrive at a conclusion. Scientists have developed traditional methods that give them added confidence in the conclusions of studies.
Importance of scientific Theories in Biology – Scientific theories are concepts that tell us about the order and patterns with the natural world.

The Scientific Method has Steps
· Observation – New observations are mad and previous data are studied
· Hypothesis- Input from various sources is used to formulate a testable statement.
· Experiment/Observations – The hypothesis is tested by experiment or further observations
· Conclusion – The results are analyzed and the hypothesis is supported or rejected.
· Scientific Theory – Many experiments and observations support a theory

How to do a Controlled Study
1. State Hypothesis
2. Gather Large Number of Subjects
3. Divide Subjects into three groups
a. Control Group
b. Test Group 1
c. Test Group 2
4. Perform Experiment
Scientific Journal Versus other Sources of Information – Scientific journals are highly regarded by most scientists. The investigator who did the research is usually the primary author of a the published study. The studies in scientific journals may be very technical and difficult for a layperson to read and understand. The general public normally relies on second hand information, which means they could be misinformed by someone not understanding the results or verifying the accuracy of the study. Be careful of scientific information on the internet. Credible scientific information can be found at websites with URLs containing .edu, .gov, or org.

Making Sense of a Scientific Study
When evaluating a study it is important to consider the type of data (testimonials are never considered reliable data).
What to Look for – The methodology is most important to look at. Verifying how the study was performed, how they conducted it and what the results or data tell us what they discovered. The conclusion must be read last because it is the interpretation of the person conducting the study. It is not the same as the data.

Chapter 2 From Atoms to Molecules – Anything that takes up space is matter…Its all matter.

Units:
From Atoms to Molecules
Water and Living Things
Molecules of Life
Carbohydrates
Lipids
Proteins
Nucleic Acids

· Elements are on of the basic building blocks of matter. Elements cannot be broken down by chemical means. There are only 92 naturally occurring elements. It surprising that over 90% of the human body is composed of just four elements: Carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, and hydrogen. Every element has a name and a symbol. Chemists arranged the elements in a periodic tale which has this name because all the elements in a column undergo the same type of chemical reaction.
· Atoms are the smallest unit of an element that still retains the chemical and physical properties of the element. The atom being so small still contains even smaller subatomic particles called protons and neutrons, located in the nucleus and electrons orbit about the nucleus n the shells. Protons carry a positive chare and electrons have negative charge. The atomic numbers given in the periodic table tell you how many protons and therefore hoe many electrons an atom has when it is electrically neutral. The mass of an atom represents its quantity of matter. The subatomic particles are so light that their mass is indicated by special designations called atomic mass units. Protons and neutrons are assigned one atomic mass unit and electrons have almost no mass. The atom is mass for each element allows you to determine the number of neutrons these atoms have.
· Isotopes of the same type of atom differ in the number of neutrons and therefore mass. Carbon 12 has six neutrons, carbon 13 has seven neutrons, and carbon 14 has eight neutrons. Carbon 14 is unstable and begins to break down releasing radioisotopes.

o Low levels of radiation are important in chemistry, biology, and medicine in the use of many diagnostic scans such as the PET scan.
o High levels of radiation are used in the treatment of cancer. High levels are also used in the sterilization technique of medical and dental equipment.
· Molecules and Compounds – A molecule is a chemical unit when atoms bond with one another. The atoms can be different as when atoms join to make water which is considered to be a compound. The tow types of bonds that join atoms are called the ionic bond and the covalent bond.
o Ionic Bonding occurs when atoms give up or take on an electron in order to achieve a stable outer shell. Ions are particle that carry either a positive or negative charge. The attraction between oppositely charged sodium ions and chloride ions forms and ionic bond.
o Covalent boning occurs when atoms share electrons. The electrons spend part their time n the outer shell of each atom therefore they are counted as belonging to both the bonded atoms.
§ Double and triple bonds share two or three pairs of between them

Water and Living Things
Water is the most abundant molecule in living organisms. In water the electrons spend more time circling the oxygen because it is bigger than the hydrogen creating more of an attraction for the electron. Water is polar because the oxygen end of the molecule has a slight negative charge and the hydrogen end has a positive charge.
Hydrogen Bonds – Occur whenever a covalently bonded hydrogen is slightly positive and attracted to a negatively charge atom some distance away.

Properties of Water – Water molecules are cohesive because of their polarity and hydrogen bonding. Water has many characteristics due to this bonding action.
1. Water is liquid at room temperature because the compounds with a low molecular weight are usually gases at room temperature.
2. Water temperature changes slowly due to the many hydrogen bonds that link water molecules. This means water can take much heat before boiling.
3. Water takes a large amount of heat change it to stem
4. Frozen water is less dense that liquid water so ice can float on water.
5. Water molecules are cohesive and therefore liquids fill vessels, such as blood vessels. After blood transports oxygen and nutrients to cells these molecules are used to produce cellular energy. Blood also removes wastes such as carbon dioxide from cells.
6. Water is also a solvent in our bodies used for balancing chemical reactions.

Acids and Bases – A mole is a unit of scientific measurement for atoms, ions, and molecules.
· Acidic Solutions -Acid solutions are substances that dissociate in water, releasing hydrogen ions.
· Basic Solutions -Base solutions are substances that either take up hydrogen ions or release hydroxide ions.
· pH Scale - The pH scale is used to indicate the acidity and basicity or alkalinity of a solution. A number with a smaller negative exponent indicates a greater quantity of hydrogen ions than one with a larger negative exponent. Basic solutions have fewer hydrogen ions.
· Buffers -The pH of body fluids needs to be maintained within a narrow range or else health suffers. The environment has buffer to take care of problems that arise. Buffer help keep the ph within normal limits because they are chemicals or combinations of chemicals that take up excess hydrogen ions.

Molecules of Life
Carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids are the four categories of organic molecules. In biology organic refers to a molecule that contains carbon and hydrogen and is usually associated with living things.
· Carbohydrates – are combined of 2:1 ratio of hydrogen to oxygen atoms which explains the name hydrates of carbon. Carbohydrates release quick and short term energy.
o Simple carbohydrates include
§ Monosaccharide
§ Pentose
§ Hexose
§ Glucose
o Complex Carbohydrates include
§ Polysaccharides – These are macromolecules such as starch, glycogen and cellulose. Cellulose is found in plant cell walls. Starch and glycogen are readily stored forms of glucose in plants and animals.
· Lipids – are fats in animals and oils in plants and contain more energy per gram than other biological molecules. Lipids are diverse in structure and function but have common characteristics. They are not water soluble. A fatty acid is a carbon-hydrogen chain that ends with the acidic group –COOH. Saturated fatty acids have no double bonds between the carbon atoms. Unsaturated fatty acids have double bonds in the carbon chain wherever the number of hydrogen’s is less than two per carbon.
· Proteins – are of primary importance in the structure of function of cells. They function as support, enzymes, transportation, defense, hormones, and motion.
· Amino Acids- are subunits of proteins.
· Nucleic Acids- are the DNA and RNA . DNA stores genetic information in the cell and in the organism. DNA replicates and transmits this information when a cell reproduces. RNA conveys DNA’s instructions DNA differs from RNA in the nucleotide structure. DNA contains the sugar deoxyribose and the nucleotides in RNA contain the sugar ribose, which is respective of their names.
· ATP- The energy carrier is when adenosine is modified by the addition of three phosphate groups instead of one it becomes ATP (adenosine triphosphate).

Chapter 3 What is A Cell?
Topics:
What is a Cell?
How Cells Are Organized
The plasma Membrane and How Substances Cross It
The Nucleus and the Production of Proteins
The Cytoskeleton and Cell Movement
Mitochondria and Cellular Metabolism

· Cell Theory – A cell is the basic unit f life. There is no smaller unit of life that is able to reproduce, respond to stimuli, remain homeostatic, grow and develop, take in and use materials from the environment, and become adapted to the environment. All living things are made of cells and they all look very different. Red blood cells look different than white blood cells. New cells can only come from preexisting cells.
· Cell Size – Few cells are large enough to see without a microscope. The larger the cell the more nutrients it needs.
· How Cells are organized – The first cells to arise were the prokaryotic cell which lacks a nucleus. Prokaryotic cells today are represented by the bacteria and Achaea. The eukaryotic cell which does have a nucleus is believed to have evolved from the Achaea. Bothe cells have a plasma membrane which regulates what enters and exits a cell. All types of cells also contain cytoplasm, which s a semi fluid medium that contains water and various types of molecules suspended of dissolved in the medium.
· The Plasma Membrane and How Substances Cross It – the plasma membrane marks the boundary between the outside and the inside of the cell, which is necessary to the life of the cell. The plasma membrane is a phospholipids bi-layer with attached or embedded proteins. At body temperature the phospholipids bi-layer is a liquid. The membrane is keeps the cell intact allowing only the molecules and ions to enter and exit the cytoplasm freely.
· The Nucleus and the production of Proteins – The nucleus stores genetic information. Every cell contains the same genes, but each type of cell has certain genes which are segments of DNA. When looking at the nucleus you cannot see DNA, you see the chromatin undergoing coiling into rod like structure called chromosomes just before the cell divides. Each of the chromosomes contains a DNA molecule. The nucleus is separated from the cytoplasm by a double membrane known as the nuclear envelop, which is continuous with endoplasmic reticulum (ER)
· Ribosome’s – Are organelles composed of proteins and rRNA. Protein synthesis occurs at the ribosomes.
· The Endomembrane System – consists of the nuclear envelope and the endoplasmic reticulum, the Golgi apparatus, lysomes and vesicles.
· The Cytoskeleton and Cell Movement – the cell is crisscrossed by several types of protein fibers collectively called the cytoskeleton, which helps maintain the cells shape and either anchors the organelles and assists in the movement. The cytoskeleton contains Microtubules which are much larger than filaments. Each is a cylinder that contains 13 longitudinal rows of a protein called tubulin. During cell division microtubules form spindle fibers which assist the movement of chromosomes.
· Cilia and Flagella – both participate in movement. A cilium is about 20 times shorter than a flagellum but both have the same organization. They both grow from basal bodies.
· Mitochondria and Cellular Metabolism – The mitochondria is the power house the cell, it converts the glucose into the chemical energy ATP. During this process mitochondria uses oxygen and gives off CO2. This is called cellular respiration. The matrix of the mitochondria contains enzymes for breaking down glucose products. ATP production then occurs at the cristae. Proteins aid in the conversion of energy. The mitochondria are bound by a double membrane as a prokaryote would be if taken into a cell by endocytosis. Mitochondria also have their own genes and they can reproduce themselves.
· Cellular Respiration and Metabolism- Cellular respiration is very important in metabolism. Metabolism requires metabolic pathways that are carried out by enzymes. Each reaction in a metabolic pathway requires a specific enzyme. Enzymes are named for their substrates. Coenzymes are non-protein molecules that assist the activity of an enzyme and may even accept or contribute atoms to the reaction. Vitamins are often components of coenzymes. After blood transports glucose and oxygen to cells cellular respiration which breaks down glucose to CO2 and water begins. Three pathways are involved in the breakdown of glucose. These pathways allow the energy within a glucose molecule to be released slowly, so that ATP can be produced gradually. The citric acid cycle completes the breakdown of glucose. The cyclical series of enzymatic reaction occurs in the matrix of mitochondria and CO2 is released. The citric acid cycle also produces two ATP per glucose molecule.

Chapter 4 Organization and Regulation of Body Systems

Topics:
Types of Tissues
Connective Tissue Connects and Supports
Muscular Tissue Moves the Body
Nervous Tissue Communicates
Epithelial Tissue Protects
Cell Junctions
Integumentary System
Organ Systems
Homeostasis

· Types of Tissue- A tissue is composed of specialized cells of the same type that perfume a common function.
o Connective tissue binds and supports body parts
o Muscular tissue moves the body and its parts
o Nervous tissue receives stimuli and conducts nerve impulses
o Epithelial tissue covers body surfaces and lines body cavities
· Cell Junctions- Epithelial cells, nerve and muscle cells are connected by cell junctions that help a tissue perform its function. Cell junctions arise when plasma membranes are joined in these ways
o Tight junctions allow epithelial cells to form a layer that covers the surface or organs and line body cavities.
o Adhesion junctions attach cytoskeletal fibers of one cell to another.
o Gap junctions occur when adjacent plasma membranes converge and leave a small channel between them that small molecules can ions can diffuse through.
· Integumentary System is the largest organ system. It is composed of all four tissue types and has several accessory organs. It accounts for nearly 15% of the weight on humans. The skin has many functions, regulating body heat, protection from the environment, water loss, and homeostasis. The skin has two regions the epidermis and the dermis. A subcutaneous lay is found between them. The epidermis is the outmost layer and is made up of stratified squamous epithelium. The subcutaneous layer is the layer beneath the dermis that is composed of loose connective tissue and adipose tissue which stores fat. The dermis is made of dense fibrous connective tissue beneath the subcutaneous lay. The dermis contains collagen and elastic fibers, and blood vessels. The sensory receptors primarily in the dermis are specialized for touch, pressure, pain, hot, and cold.
· Accessory Organs of the Skin includes Nails, hair follicles, oil glands, and sweat glands.
· Organ Systems
o Integumentary System contains skin, nails, hairs, muscles that move the hairs, oil and sweat glands, blood vessels, and nerves.
o Cardiovascular system includes the heart and blood vessels t pump oxygen rich blood to all parts of the body
o Lymphatic system consists of lymphatic vessels, lymph nodes, the spleen, and other lymphatic organs to make up the immune system.
o Digestive system consists of the mouth, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, and large intestine. Other associated organs include teeth, tongue, salivary glands, liver, gallbladder, and pancreas.
o Respiratory System is the lungs and the airways taking air in and breathing it out.
o Urinary system contains the kidneys, the bladder, and the tubes that carry urine.
o Skeletal system includes all bones of the body that are used for protection, movement, and to store minerals.
o Muscular system accounts for the movement of the body and posture. The cardiac muscle contracts to pump the heart, and internal organ muscle are smooth muscle.
o Nervous system consists of the brain, spinal cord and nerves.
o Endocrine system is the hormonal glands.
o Reproductive system is different in male and female. In females the ovaries, oviducts, uterus, vagina, and external genitals. The male testes, other glands, and various ducts.
· Homeostasis – is the body’s ability to maintain a constant condition of its internal environment by adjusting its physiological processes, not through external conditions. There are two parts to the internal environment. Tissue fluid and blood. All of the body systems rely on homeostasis to remain healthy. When homeostatic mechanisms fail the result is poor health, disease, or death. Negative feedback is the primary homeostatic mechanism that keeps a variable such as the blood glucose level close to a particular value. A homeostatic mechanism has two components a sensor and a control center. Negative feedback is present when the output of the system dampens the original stimulus. Positive feedback brings about an ever greater change in the same direction. A positive feedback can be harmful as when a fever causes metabolic changes that push the fever still higher. Positive feedback loops such as those involved in childbirth, blood clotting, and t he digestion of proteins to assist the body in completing a process, but there is a definite cut off point.

Are Genetically Engineered Foods Safe?

2008-09-19T21:30:00.000-07:00

Are Genetically Engineered Foods Safe?
The term GM foods or GMOs (genetically-modified organisms) is most commonly used to refer to crop plants created for human or animal consumption using the latest molecular biology techniques. Genetic engineering enables scientists to create plants, animals and micro-organisms by manipulating genes in a way that does not occur naturally. Genetic engineering (GE) is used to take genes and segments of DNA from one species and put them into another species. GE provides a set of techniques to cut DNA either randomly or at a number of specific sites. Once isolated one can study the different segments of DNA, multiply them up and splice them (stick them) next to any other DNA of another cell or organism. GE makes it possible to break through the species barrier and to shuffle information between completely unrelated species. Many foods that hit the dinner table today are genetically modified or engineered. According to the FDA these foods are thought to be safe for human consumption. Many people have found this to be a premature approval since not enough long term studies have been done to assure the public’s safety. The main concern seems to be whether food should be labeled stating that the food has been modified or genetically engineered. Lets see how other people feel about this situation.
This is the opinion of Art Caplan from an interview with Forbes.com. The big question remains: Do you have a right to know if your food comes from a genetically engineered animal? “I do think you have a right to know what you are eating or how the pet you are thinking of buying was created. The bioagriculture and food industry should simply agree to label — if not on packages then at least on publicly accessible Web sites.” http://blogs.forbes.com/sciencebizblog/2008/09/art-caplan-on-g.html
There are many responses to this issue from many areas of expertise. Here Dr SCHAUMBURG, of The American Veterinary Medical Association (AVMA) applauded the release of federal guidance on the use of genetically engineered animals in research and food production. “Genetic engineering has opened many doors and has the potential to provide great benefit to humans, animals and our society," said W. Ron DeHaven, DVM, chief executive officer of the AVMA. Dr. DeHaven's comments were issued in response to today's announcement by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) that it has released draft guidance on the regulation of genetically engineered animals and is asking for comments from the public. http://www.marketwatch.com/news/story/avma-supports-fda-efforts-clarify/story.aspx?guid=%7B0798A1A2-4653-4B32-A9E3-11EC6A469B29%7D&dist=hppr
In turn many others feel that this is a problem as the gentleman that wrote this essay on Genetic Engineering. A fish gene will not work in a tomato unless it is given a promoter with a "flag" the tomato cells will recognize. Such a control sequence should either be a tomato sequence or something similar. Most companies and scientists do a shortcut here and don't even bother to look for an appropriate tomato promoter as it would take years to understand how the cell's internal communication and regulation works. In order to avoid long testing and adjusting, most genetic engineering of plants is done with viral promoters. Viruses - as you will be aware - are very active. Nothing, or almost nothing, will stop them once they have found a new victim or rather host. They integrate their genetic information into the DNA of a host cell (such as one of your own), multiply, infect the next cells and multiply. This is possible because viruses have evolved very powerful promoters which command the host cell to constantly read the viral genes and produce viral proteins. Simply by taking a control element (promoter) from a plant virus and sticking it in front of the information block of the fish gene, you can get this combined virus/fish gene (known as a "construct') to work wherever and whenever you want in a plant. This might sound great, the drawback though is that it can't be stopped either, it can't be switched off. The plant no longer has a say in the expression of the new gene, even when the constant involuntary production of the "new" product is weakening the plant's defences or growth. http://online.sfsu.edu/~rone/GEessays/WhatisGE.html
The opinion of The Green Peace organization is as follows word for word from their website. Biological diversity must be protected and respected as the global heritage of humankind, and one of our world's fundamental keys to survival. Governments are attempting to address the threat of GE with international regulations such as the Biosafety Protocol. Their release is 'genetic pollution' and is a major threat because GMOs cannot be recalled once released into the environment. We believe: GMOs should not be released into the environment as there is not adequate scientific understanding of their impact on the environment and human health. We advocate immediate interim measures such as labeling of GE ingredients, and the segregation of genetically engineered crops and seeds from conventional ones. We also oppose all patents on plants, animals and humans, as well as patents on their genes. Life is not an industrial commodity. When we force life forms and our world's food supply to conform to human economic models rather than their natural ones, we do so at our own peril. http://www.greenpeace.org/international/campaigns/genetic-engineering
It seems that the people that are for engineering foods might have some type of profit to make from the food that is being reproduced. There are good things that can happen with engineering foods, such as supplementing vitamin A into rice so that the Chinese children are getting adequate amounts as to retain better vision and not suffer later in life. The fact is, is that not enough long term (long term being the key) studies have been conducted so we don’t know the effects of manipulating our food supply. I would hope that in the near future all food products would be labeled if they have been engineered, altered, or manipulated, just like organics or trans fat labels.

Meet Virginia

2008-08-26T23:29:00.000-07:00

Hello to all! My name is Virginia Camp I am working on an associates of art degree with emphasis in science. I will transfer to NAU to complete with a Biology degree (God Willing:) next year. I have many favorite artists so I am not sure who to choose from I would rather tell you that I listen to many styles of music ranging from the blues to heavy metal and everything in between. I am taking this class as part of my degree, but I am hoping to achieve a better understanding of the human body. Three interesting things about myself would be one, that I love to be outdoors hiking, camping, backpacking...what ever, second would be that I work in hyperbaric medicine and third would be that I have the most incredible husband and children.

Genetics Lab

2008-08-26T12:49:00.000-07:00

Heredity is the passing on of traits from the parents to its offspring. Genes control all the traits that an organism receives. Genotype are the genes of an individual for a particular trait or traits, often designated by using letters to as identifiers such as using BB or Aa as an example. The different forms a gene may have for a trait are called alleles. There are two alleles for every trait. Alleles represent a genotype, or the genetic makeup of an organism for a trait. A phenotype is a physical trait that shows as a result of an organism's particular genotype. Organisms may look alike but have different genotypes. It is impossible to determine homozygous dominant and heterozygous genotypes visually.
As the example showed in our lab, Mendel's pea plants had two alleles for flower color—an allele for purple and an allele for white. Mendel crossed a purple-flowered pea plant with a white-flowered pea plant. All the offspring of this cross had purple flowers. Mendel determined that the purple flower allele was dominant because it covered up the white flower allele, which he called recessive. Phenotypes are the visible expression of a genotype such as a person having brown eyes or a dragon breathing fire. These are considered to be the dominant allele which is when the allele that exerts its phonotypic effect in the zygote masks the expression of the recessive allele. The recessive allele is still part of the genetic makeup of the zygote, but is masked by the more dominant allele.

Reginald Punnett an English Biologist developed a method for predicting which alleles can combine. It is called a Punnett square. In a Punnett square, dominant and recessive alleles are represented by letters. An uppercase letter represents a dominant allele, and a lowercase letter represents a recessive allele. Each cell in an organism's body contains two alleles for every trait. One allele is inherited from the mother and one allele is inherited from the father. An organism is homozygous if it has identical alleles for a particular trait. An organism is heterozygous if it has no identical alleles for a particular trait. There are three possible combinations of alleles of an organism for a particular trait: homozygous dominant (PP), heterozygous (Pp), and homozygous recessive (pp).

This was a very interesting lab to me after just having a baby. It is quite fun to just see the different features he has inhereted from his father and I.

Microscope Lab

2008-08-26T12:01:00.000-07:00

Zacharias Janssen was the first to invent the microscope in 1595 in Middleburg, Holland. Zacharias was a child at the time, so it is believed that his father may have made the first microscope rather than he. The Jansen's first microscope was a tube with lenses at each end. The magnification of these early scopes ranged from 3X to 9X, depending on the size of the diaphragm openings.

In 1670 Antonio Van Leevwenhoek discovered the single cell organisms which he called the "animalcules." His microscopes had a simple convex lens with 1/4'' focus magnification ranges from 50x -275x.

In 1750 the real beginnings of the scientific microscope began with F. Watkins cuff design microscope. The course focus was achieved by moving the body up and down and the fine focus was achieved with a micrometer. Today microscopes are much more advanced but these pioneers made all of it possible.

The stage of the microscope is the flat platform piece where you place slides by use the the stage clips. This is best adjusted by looking through the microscope.

The Focus Knobs on the microscope are used for fine and course focusing. Both focus knobs are located on the arm of the microscope. The course knob uses a low power to make images sharp, while the fine focus knob is used to make minor adjustments. These knobs are adjusted looking through the microscope.

Iris or Diaphragm is a rotating disk under the stage. It has different sized holes to adjust the intensity of the light. This is adjusted looking through the microscope.

Oculars are the eye piece lens you look through. They are usually 10x - 15x power.

Objective Lenses -There are usually 3 - 4 objective lenses on a microscope, each ranging from 4x, 10x, 40x, and 100x powers. They are color coded and usually interchangeable. These are best adjusted looking at them and not through them.